Cognitive Apprenticeship
Biography
Brown has a bachelor of science degree in mathematics and physics from Brown University and a Ph.D. in computer and communication sciences from the University of Michigan. John Seely Brown is chief scientist and a corporate vice president of Xerox Corporation. His personal research interests include digital culture, ubiquitous computing, user-centered design, organizational and individual learning. Brown is a co-founder of the Institute for Research on Learning, a non-profit institute for addressing the problems of lifelong learning. He has published more than 95 scientific journals and was a recipient of the McKinsey Award for his article, "Research That Reinvents the Corporation" that was published in Harvard Business Review in 1991. More recently he has published the book "The Social Life of Information".
Theory
Brown's work on cognitive apprenticeship evolved from the work of Lave on situated learning. This model of learning is derived from the notion that cognitive tools are acquired in the same way as apprentices learn a craft or trade. This method of instruction is a synthesis of formal schooling and traditional apprenticeship. Learners enter a culture of practice. Acquisition, development and application of cognitive tools in a learning domain is based on activity in learning and knowledge. Enculturation (social interaction) and context (learning environment) are powerful components of learning in this model. Instructors and other students provide modeling in situ and scaffolding for students to enter into learning activity. As students learn and gain skills and self-confidence they are prepared for more autonomy, and begin to have conscious participation in the learning culture.
An element of apprenticeship approaches is that the teacher's methods of thinking and doing are explicitly revealed to the apprentice, who models these approaches in his own activity. In traditional classroom approaches, the teacher's thinking processes are usually invisible and operate outside of conscious awareness, even for the teacher. The goal of cognitive apprenticeship is to make the thinking processes of a learning activity visible to both the students and the teacher. The teacher is then able to employ the methods of traditional apprenticeship (modeling, coaching, scaffolding, and fading) to effectively guide student learning.
Several other characteristics are important in cognitive apprenticeship. The legitimacy of prior learning and knowledge of new students is respected, and is drawn upon as scaffolding in tasks which initially seem unfamiliar or difficult to learners. Procedures are seen as flexible and evolving. Both algorithms and heuristics are assessed in context and with respect to desired outcomes and objectives. This flexibility allows students to generate unique solutions to problems, and makes them more active, conscious, and creative participants in the learning culture.
Cognitive apprenticeship can be especially effective when teaching complex, cognitive skills such as reading comprehension, essay writing, and mathematical problem solving. Not only does cognitive apprenticeship lead to students' greater understanding of the material, it also combats "inert knowledge," helping them to apply their knowledge and skills in novel situations. In one method, the teacher models the processes involved in a complex task initially, by thinking aloud or describing the cognitive strategy for the task. As soon as possible, the teacher turns the role of "teacher" over to students. The teacher then coaches and scaffolds students' efforts, decreasing active participation as they become more proficient in their skills.
Learning Theory Bibliography
Colling et al, (1991).
Brown et al (n.d.).