Learning Theories
Glossary
Acquisition (Behaviorism, Skinner)- Linking a new
behavior to a stimulus by providing reinforcement
after the correct behavior is produced.
Algorithmic processes- consist of a series of elementary
operations that are performed in a regular, uniform manner
and are designed to solve a particular class of problems.
These sequences are ideally performed in the same way every
time. Examples might include shooting free-throws in
basketball, or bowling.
Anchored Instruction (Bransford)- is actually a
paradigm for technology-based instruction and is based
on a general model of problem solving. Anchored
instruction has found applications in primary levels
of reading, math, and language skills. The name is
derived from the technique of designing instructional
activities around an "anchor" which may be a theme,
case-study, or problem to be solved. Learners engage
in exploration and discovery learning. Learning
activities draw from many fields.
Andragogy (Knowles)- the art and practice of
teaching adult learners.
Behaviorism (Watson)- the school of
psychology that emphasises describing and measuring
only that with is observable directly or through
assessment instruments.
Category (Bruner)- Rules for specifiying
similarities and differences among phenomena in
cognitive processing. Bruner defined at least three
types of categories: identity, equivalence, and
formal.
Centralism – the view that learning mainly involves the
central nervous system. Stimuli and responses are mediated
in the CNS. Centralists explain behavior in terms of
cognition, purpose, attitudes, problems solving, and other
cognitive processes.
Chunk, Chunking- G.A.Miller- any meaningful
unit of information. Miller proposed that short-term
memory could only hold and manage 7 plus or minus 2
chunks at a time.
Classical Conditioning- (behaviorism)- model developed by
Pavlov
(1927) which was the basis for several of the early
theoretical approaches to learning. A neutral
stimulus, when repeatedly paired witha stimulus that
normally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar
or identical response.
Coding Systems (Bruner)- Clusters of hierarchically
related categories.
Cognitive Apprenticeship- (John Seely Brown)- This model of
learning is derived from the notion that cognitive
tools are acquired in the same way as apprentices
learn a craft or trade. Learners enter a culture of
practice.
Cognitive Map – (Tolman) a complex
internal representation or “image” of the external
environment.
Cognitive - mental processes including thinking, memory,
planning, decision making, computing, etc.
Conditioned stimulus (behaviorism, Pavlov)- a
neutral stimulus which, when paired with an
unconditioned stimulus, produces an instinctive
response. Example- the famous experiment in which the
ringing of a bell came to stimulate dogs' salivation.
The salivation then becomes a conditioned response.A
my house, the sound of the can opener causes my cats
to run to the kitchen and meow while turning in
circles until the food is given to them.
Conditioned response (behaviorism, Pavlov) - a
response which becomes associted with a conditioned
stimulus, such as Pavlov's dog's salivation when a
bell was rung.
Connectionism- (Thorndike)- the idea
that bonds between stimulus and response take the form
of neural connections. Learning involves the "stamping
in" of connections, forgetting involves "stamping out"
connections.
Contiguity- (Behaviorism)- One explanation
for learning in behaviorism; an association is built
between two events simply because they occured
simultaneously or overlapping in time.For example, if
food is presented while some auditory signal is given,
a dog will "learn" to salivate when it hears the
auditory signal, even if no food is present.
Counterconditioning - a procedure for weakening an unwanted
conditioned response by associating the stimuli to a new
response incompatible with the conditioned response.
Dependent variables – variables being observed and measured
in response to the independent variables, such as amount of
time taken to learn a task or respond after a stimulus is
given, number of responses, etc.
Discrimination -(behaviorism, Pavlov) -
Development of sensory acuity to make distinctions
between similar stimuli. For example, in cattle herds,
a cow will only respond to the call of its own calf,
even if other calves are in the vicinity.
Discrimination Learning Theory- (Spence)- reinforcement
combined with frustration or inhibitors facilitated
finding a correct stimulus among a cluster which
included incorrect ones. This was a "carrot and stick"
model.
Drive Reduction Theory -(Hull)- the notion that behavior
occurs in reponse to "drives" such as hunger, thirst,
sexual interest, feeling cold, etc. When the goal of
the drive is attained (food, water, mating, warmth)
the drive is reduced, and this constitutes
reinforcement of the behaviors that lead to the drive
reduction, and ultimately learning.
Expectancy Theory - (Tolman)- the theory that
animals (and humans) develop expectancy or
anticipation of rewards for completing behaviors they
have learned, and this expectancy functions as an
internal incentive or motivation.
Extinction - (behaviorism, Pavlov)
occurs when an orgaanism who has been reinforced for
engaging in a behavior ceases to be reinforced. The
outcome will be a cessation of the behavior in
question over a relatively brief period of time.
Forgetting - (see also extinction)- gradual cessation of a
response as a result of passage of time with no repetition
of the behavior during this time.
Generalization (behaviorism, Pavlov)-
Stimulus which is similar to a conditioned stimulus
comes to produce a response similar to a conditioned
response. Example, we have a dog that barks
frantically if someone knocks on the door. Eventually,
she began barking when she hears any knocking sound,
such as hammering, or knocking sounds on television.
Heuristic processes involve some sort of decision making.
Heuristic processes tend to branch out as in a flow chart,
with the operator making decisions and one or more choice
points in response to changing conditions. Examples might
be having a conversation or discussion, or diagnosing a
problem.
Independent variables – variables which the researcher can
control and manipulate, such as the design of a maze,
withholding food, providing reinforcers, etc.
Inert knowledge- (Brown, Cognitive apprenticeship)-
knowledge which lacks application or cross contextual
understanding.
Intervening variables- (Tolman) - these are
hypothetical constructs rather than physical
parameters. They are definable and measurable but not
observable. They have functional relationships with
both independent and dependent variables. They are
internal cognitive processes.
Latent Learning – (Tolman) -learning which
is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time
of learning, but which manifests later when a suitable
motivation and circumstances appear.
Law of Effect (Thorndike) - Responses
which occur just prior to a satisfying state of
affairs are more likely to be repeated, and responses
just prior to an annoying state of affairs are more
likely NOT to be repeated.
Law of Exercise (Thorndike)- the idea
that bonds between stimulus and response are
strengthened by recency, frequency, and contiguity.
Learning - a relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs through experience.
Learning to Learn (Estes) - the tendency of
learners to become increasingly effective at solving
problems as more problems are solved.
Negative reinforcer (Behaviorism, Skinner)- A stimulus which
when taken away from a situation increases the
probability of a response occuring. (note that both
positive and negative reinforcement increase the
probability of a response or behavior occuring)
Neurophysiology (Hebb)- biological functioning
of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal
cord, and peripheral nervous system, through the
actions of neruons, synapses, neural networks, and
neurotransmitters.
Operant Conditioning (Behaviorism, Skinner)- a model which
states that when a resonse is followed by a
reinforcer, the result will be an increase in the
probability that this response will occur again under
similar conditions.
Operants- (Behaviorism, Skinner) - responses simply
emitted by an organism. In operant behavior, the
organism acts on the environment.
Peripheralism – the view that learning involves mainly
receptors, muscles and glands. Peripheralists explain
behavior in terms of habits, drives, and motor responses.
Plasticity - (Hebb) - the ability of an
organism to change its response patterns over time.
Positive reinforcement- (Behaviorism, Skinner)- a reinforcement of
a behavior which increases the probability that the
behavior will occur again.
Punishment-(Behaviorism, Skinner)- a type of
reinforcment which suppresses or reduces the
probability of the response it follows. Also read the
definition for negative reinforcer, which increases
response when taken away.
Reactivity - (Hebb) - the capacity of an
organism to react to external stimuli.
Reinforcement- (Behaviorism, Thorndike, Skinner)- The notion that
learning takes place because of the consequences of a
behavior. This could be a pleasant consequence,
removal of something unpleasant, or both.
Respondents - (behaviorism)- responses
elicited by a stimulus. In respondent behavior, the
organism reacts to the environment.
Response- (behaviorism)- the desired or
expected behavior which is produced when reinforcement
is provided after the behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement (Behaviorism, Skinner)- giving
reinforcement on different schedules has different
results for training. Click on link for more detail
Schema- (Piaget) - an element of a cognitive
structure. Schema refers to a general potential to
perform a class of behaviors, and content describes
the conditions that prevail during any particular
example of that potential being activated. (Schemata =
plulral)
Script - (Schank) - Scripts are
schemata for generalized episodes or events.
Sign Gestalt –(Tolman)- a complex of
signs (stimuli), significates (goals or rewards), and
means-end relations (one's relationship regarding
direction, distance, and orientation of objects to the
individual.
Social Constructivism (Vygotsky) - The perspective that
learning and development is a social, collaborative
activity.
Spiral Curriculum (Bruner) - Spiral curriculum refers
to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over,
building upon them and elaborating to the level of
full understanding and mastery
Statistical Learning Theory - a learning theory in which
the probablity of a response is the dependent variable.
Independent variables are usually stimuli controlled by the
researcher. These are attempts to quantify and objectify
learning research.
Stimulus - Sensory input from the environment that may
cause some response or behavior in a subject.
Stimulus - Response Models of Learning - as a group, the
classical
conditioning, behaviorist and neo-behaviorist models are
considered as stimulus response models.
Stimulus Sampling Theory (SST) - (Estes) - A theory
developed by Estes that attempts to show how stimuli
are sampled and attached to responses. A statistical
learning theory.
TOTE's. (G. A. Miller)- (Test -
Operate - Test - Exit). These are operational feedback
units that function within a self-regulated system.
Unconditioned response - (Pavlov,
classical conditioning)- a natural, instinctive
response to stimuli from the environment. Examples
include salivation in response to food, hair standing
on end in response to a threat, a mother cat licking
her kittens in response to mewing sounds.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - (Pavlov,
classical conditioning)- a stimulus tht causes
reflexive, unlearned behavior (Unconditioned response
(UCR). Smelling food stimulates salivation, or the
presence of a threatening dominant pack member elicits
submissive behavior in a lower ranked animal.
Zone of Proximal development (ZPD)- Vygotsky - ZPD refers to the
observation that children, when learning a particular
task or body of information, are unable initiallly to
do the task. Later they can do it with the assistance
of an adult or older child mentor, and finally they
can do it without assistance. The ZPD is the stage
where they can do it with assistance, but not alone.
