Learning Styles
Kolb's Model of Learning Styles
Kolb (1981) developed the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) to evaluate the way people learn and work with ideas in day-to-day life. He used the LSI to help people understand how they make career choices, solve problems, set goals, manage others, and deal with new situations. The instrument consists of twelve questions in which the subject selects one of four possible responses. The four columns in the instrument relate to the four stages Kolb identified as a cycle of learning: Concrete Experience (CE), Reflective Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation (AE). He paired AE and RO as polar opposites (doing vs. watching), and CE and AC as polar opposites (feeling vs. thinking).
According to Kolb (1981), Concrete Experience (CE) emphasizes active involvement, relating with other people, and learning by experience. Learners in the CE phase of learning are open-minded and adaptable, and are sensitive to the feelings of themselves and others.
Reflective Observation (RO) is the stage in which the learner watches and listens, views issues from different points of view, and discovers meaning in the learning material.
Abstract Conceptualization (AC) is the application of thought and logic, as opposed to feelings, to the learning situation. Planning, developing theories, and analysis are part of this stage.
The last stage is Active Experimentation (AE) and involves testing theories, carrying out plans, and influencing people and events through activity. Kolb believed that a complete cycle of learning involved each of these stages.
Since people use all four stages in many learning situations, Kolb (1981) used combined scores to determine which of four learning styles an individual preferred. He encouraged learners to become familiar with their own learning style, including its strengths and weaknesses, as a means to getting more out of each learning experience. The combined scores are derived from the polar pairs (AC minus CE) and (AE minus RO). The results are then plotted on a two axis grid, and finding the point of interception in one of the four quadrants.
Hashaway (1998) described Kolb's four learning styles. Divergers combine Reflective Observation (RO) and Concrete Experience (CE); they can see situations from many perspectives, and chunk up to forma a "gestalt". They do well in idea-generating processes such as brain-storming; they are imaginative and emotional. They tend to develop broad cultural interests, and specialize in the arts, humanities and liberal arts.
Convergers combine Abstract Conceptualization and Active Experimentation. They have the opposite style to the Diverger. These learners do well in conventional testing situations and other contexts where there is a single correct answer or solution. They use hypothetical- deductive reasoning, and can focus on specific problems. They are relatively unemotional, are highly procedural and prefer to work with inanimate objects than people. They may have narrow interests and often choose to specialize in science, engineering, and other exact fields. Figure 1 illustrates the quadrants for the Diverger and the Converger.
According to Hashaway (1998), Assimilators combine Reflective Observation and Abstract Conceptualization. They excel at creating theoretical models. They have a tendency toward inductive reasoning (chunking up), and are more interested in abstract concepts than in application or in people. Basic sciences and mathematics attract Assimilators, who excel in these fields of study.
The Accomodator's strength is doing things, carrying out plans and performing experiments. They like novel experiences and adapt to change easily. Of the four types, Accomodators are highest in risk-taking and most easily adapt to immediate circumstances. They solve problems in an intuitive, trial-and-error manner. They rely on other people for information more than their own analytical ability. They can appear impatient or pushy.
Kolb (1981) believed that the most effective problem solving and learning occurred when people used the skills of all four types of learners. Nearly every problem requires (1) Identifying a problem, (2) Selecting which problem to solve, (3) Considering a variety of possible solutions, (4) Evaluating possible results of the solutions, and (5) Implementing the solution of choice. Figure 3, which is adapted from Kolb, shows how this cycle of learning and problem solving moves through all four of the learning styles, and utilizes all four stages of learning.
McCarthy (1987) developed the 4Mat system based on Kolb's learning types, and recommended teaching in a cyclical process that addresses each phase in the cycle of learning, and each of the learning styles in the instruction of any subject matter. Her method of teaching started with the Diverger (values and meanings), then Assimilator (conceptual connections), then Converger (problem solving skills), and finally Accommodator (new creations). Movement around the circle includes all learners in their natural preferences, and encourages them to develop skills in the other three styles. It respects the natural cycle of learning suggested by Kolb. (1981). McCarthy's system was to teach to each style in sequence for each lesson or content chunk. For each lesson or content chunk the teacher was to answer the question most relevant for each quadrant: “Why?” (relevance), “What?” (facts and descriptive material),” How?” (methods and procedures), and “What If?” (exceptions, applications, creative combination with other material). McCarthy offered additional insights into the four leaning styles, as summarized below.
Characteristics of the Four Learning Types (McCarthy, 1987)
| Learning
Style
|
Characteristics
as Learners
|
Characteristics
as Teachers
|
| Diverger
|
Perceive
information concretely, process reflectively, are
imaginative, believe in their own experience, are
insight thinkers, thrive on harmony and personal
involvement, seek commitment, meaning, and clarity,
and have high interest in people and culture.
|
Have
interest in facilitating personal growth, help
people become more self-aware, exhibit
authenticity, encourage discussions, group work,
feelings, and cooperation, and help students find
meaningful goals. They may be fearful under
pressure and may lack risk-taking.
|
| Assimilator
|
Perceive
abstractly, process reflectively, devise theories,
seek continuity, need to know what experts think,
love ideas, and are detail oriented. They exhibit
intellectual competence in traditional classrooms.
|
Transmit
knowledge, facts, and details; use organized
sequential thinking, demonstrate love of knowledge,
but can have a dominating attitude that can
discourage creativity.
|
| Converger
|
Perceive
abstractly, process actively, integrate theory and
practice, are pragmatic, dislike fuzzy ideas, value
strategic thinking, are skill oriented, like to
experiment, and seek results and applications.
|
Encourage
productivity and competence, promote high values,
teach skills for adult life, believe knowledge
makes learners independent. They tend to be
inflexible and may lack team skills
|
| Accommodator
|
Perceive
concretely and process actively, learn by trial and
error, are interested in self-discovery, are
enthusiastic about new things, are adaptable and
flexible, like change, are risk takers, people are
important to them, and they seek to influence.
|
Enable
student self-discovery, help people act on their
own visions, believe curricula should be geared to
learner interests, see knowledge as a tool for
improving society, encourage experiential learning,
and are dramatic, energizing, stimulating, novel
|
Learning Theory Bibliography
Kolb, D. A. (1981).
McCarthy, B. (1987).
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