F. I. M
Craik and R. S. Lockhart
Levels of Processing
Biographies
R.S. Lockhart is emeritus professor at the University of
Toronto.
Theory
These two authors proposed that memory was enhanced more by
depth of processing than by how long information was
rehearsed. They suggested that rehearsal was mainly
effective if the rehearsal was done in a deep and
meaningful way. In a number of experiments they
demonstrated that passive rehearsal does not result in
better retention. They opposed the view that short-term and
long-term memory were different.
When Craik and Lockhart published their research in 1972,
the prevailing memory model for memory was a dual storage
model. This popular model postulated only two levels of
memory and suggested that characteristics of a memory are
determined by it's "location". Short term memory (STM) was
a fragile, volatile memory trace in a short term storage
location, and long term memory (LTM) was the more durable
memory stored in a different location.
Craik and Lockhart proposed that memory occurs on a
continuum from shallow to deep, with no limit on the number
of different levels. The shallow or superficial levels
store information about identity of phenomena, including
numerous attributes. These may be associated with a word or
an image. The shallow levels involve analysis in terms of
physical or sensory characteristics, such as brightness or
pitch. The intermediate level of memory relates to
recognition and labeling. The deep level is the storage of
meaning and networks of association. Deeper processing
results in more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger
memory traces. When the learner analyzes for meaning, he
may think of other, related associations, images, and past
experiences related to the stimulus.Factors which influence
the depth of perceptual processing include the amount of
attention devoted to the stimulus, its compatibility with
existing memory structures in the learner's brain, and the
amount of processing time available. In addition, the
"Self-Reference Effect", in which new information is
related to the learner himself, takes learning to deeper
levels and therefore promotes long-term memory.
Craik and Lockhart also discussed rehearsal, the process of
cycling information through memory. Craik and Lockhart
proposed two kinds of rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal
merely repeats the kind of analysis that has already been
carried out. In contrast, elaborate rehearsal involves a
deeper, more meaningful analysis of the stimulus.
Elaboration is the process of adding more extensive
information into the memory system. This serves to make
existing information and incoming information more
distinctive and unique.
More recently, Craik (2002) commented that "Perhaps the
most enduring legacy of the Craik and Lockhart (1972) paper
is the greater emphasis on memory as processing in current
theories".
Learning Theory
Bibliography
Craik, 2002
Craik and Lockhart, (1972).
Myers, 1999
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