CROSS,
K. P.
Characteristics of Adult Learners (CAL)
Cross was influenced by theoretical frameworks of adult
learning such as andragogy and experiential learning. Cross
identified two classes of variables that represent
differences between children and adult learners. These
were personal characteristics and situational
characteristics. Personal characteristics include
physical, psychological, social, and cultural aspects
of the learner. These are all areas of growth as an
individual develops from child to adult. Situational
characteristics include part-time versus full-time
participation in schooling, and voluntary versus
compulsory participation.
Cross attempted to incorporate research on aging,
development, participation, motivation, and other things
into her model. She looked at interactions between personal
and situational parameters. Her goal was to offer a
framework for thinking about what and how adults learn, as
opposed to specific implications for practice.
The CAL model encourages adult educators to utilize the
experience of the participants, to adapt to the
physiological aging limitations of participants, to
challenge learners in the area of personal development, and
to provide high levels of choice for the learner.
Criticism of the CAL model has been that the variables may
be too broadly defined. It has been questioned whether
characteristics such as age, motivation and so forth really
tell us much about how adults learn, or if they actually
learn differently than children. The CAL model has not been
empirically tested.
Learning Theory
Bibliography
Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as Learners. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Merriam and Cafferella, 1991
http://tip.psychology.org/cross.html
